Grammatical gender · der · die · das · die
Every German noun has a gender
Masculine nouns use der · Feminine nouns use die · Neuter nouns use das
All plural nouns use die, regardless of gender.
Nominative: the subject of the sentence
| masculine | feminine | neuter | plural |
|---|
| NOM | der | die | das | die |
Examples from this level
Der Hund bellt laut. · Die Katze schläft. · Das Kind spielt draußen.
Die Kinder sind müde. (plural: always die)
Gender is not always logical. You have to learn it with the noun.
das Mädchen (girl, neuter!) · die Sonne (sun, feminine) · der Mond (moon, masculine)
All four cases · definite articles
Full definite article table
| masculine | feminine | neuter | plural |
|---|
| NOM | der | die | das | die |
| AKK | den | die | das | die |
| DAT | dem | der | dem | den |
| GEN | des | der | des | der |
Key insight: only masculine changes in the accusative
Ich sehe den Hund. (masc: der becomes den)
Ich sehe die Frau. (fem: die stays die)
Ich sehe das Kind. (neut: das stays das)
Genitive: expressing possession and relationship
Das ist das Auto des Mannes. (the man's car, masculine genitive)
Das ist das Buch der Frau. (the woman's book, feminine genitive)
Das ist das Spielzeug des Kindes. (the child's toy, neuter genitive)
Masculine and neuter nouns add -s or -es in the genitive: des Mannes, des Kindes, des Tags
Common prepositions that always take the dative
aus · bei · mit · nach · seit · von · zu · gegenüber
Er wohnt bei der Familie. · Sie fährt mit dem Auto.
Common prepositions that always take the genitive
wegen · trotz · während · statt · innerhalb · außerhalb · aufgrund
Trotz des Regens gingen wir spazieren. (despite the rain)
Während der Pause sprachen sie. (during the break)
Indefinite articles · ein · eine · einen · einem · einer
Indefinite article table
| masculine | feminine | neuter |
|---|
| NOM | ein | eine | ein |
| AKK | einen | eine | ein |
| DAT | einem | einer | einem |
| GEN | eines | einer | eines |
Use indefinite for something unspecific or first-mentioned
Ich suche eine Apotheke. (any pharmacy)
Das ist ein Buch. (introducing for the first time)
Er kauft eine Jacke. (an unspecified jacket)
Professions after "sein": always indefinite
Sie ist eine Lehrerin. · Er ist ein Arzt.
No plural indefinite article
Hunde sind freundlich. (Dogs are friendly, no article)
Definite and indefinite side by side · all four cases
Definite articles
| masc | fem | neut | pl |
|---|
| NOM | der | die | das | die |
| AKK | den | die | das | die |
| DAT | dem | der | dem | den |
| GEN | des | der | des | der |
Indefinite articles
| masc | fem | neut |
|---|
| NOM | ein | eine | ein |
| AKK | einen | eine | ein |
| DAT | einem | einer | einem |
| GEN | eines | einer | eines |
Definite vs indefinite: how to choose
Use definite when both speaker and listener know which specific thing is meant.
Use indefinite when referring to something unspecific or introducing it for the first time.
Er ruft den Chef an. (his specific boss) · Er kauft einen Mantel. (any coat)
Verbs that always take the dative case
These verbs govern the dative, not the accusative
danken: to thank · helfen: to help · antworten: to answer
folgen: to follow · widersprechen: to contradict · vertrauen: to trust
gehören: to belong to · begegnen: to meet/encounter
gefallen: to please, to like · schmecken: to taste good to
With definite and indefinite dative
Er hilft der Frau. (the woman, definite fem dative)
Er hilft einer alten Dame. (an old lady, indefinite fem dative)
Das Buch gehört dem Kind. (the child, definite neut dative)
Das Geschenk gehört einer Schülerin. (a student, indefinite fem dative)
Memory tip
If the English sentence has "to" after the verb (give to, talk to, belong to), the German often uses the dative. But always check: not every "to" triggers dative.
Wechselpräpositionen · movement: accusative; location: dative
The nine two-way prepositions
an · auf · hinter · in · neben · über · unter · vor · zwischen
The rule: ask wo? or wohin?
Wo? (Where is it?) takes the dative · Wohin? (Where is it going?) takes the accusative
Movement: accusative
Sie legt das Buch auf den Tisch. (she places it onto the table)
Das Kind läuft in den Garten. (running into the garden)
Er setzt sich an einen Tisch. (sits down at a table)
Location: dative
Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch. (lying on the table)
Das Kind spielt in dem Garten. (playing in the garden)
Er sitzt an einem Tisch. (sitting at a table)
Grammatical gender · masculine · feminine
All Spanish nouns are either masculine or feminine
Masculine: el libro (book), el perro (dog), el sol (sun)
Feminine: la casa (house), la luna (moon), la ciudad (city)
Endings that signal gender
Usually masculine: -o (libro, banco), -or (color, valor), -ón (camión)
Usually feminine: -a (mesa, ventana), -ción / -sión (canción, tensión), -dad / -tad (ciudad, libertad), -tud (actitud)
Exceptions exist: el día (day, masc), la mano (hand, fem), el problema (masc)
Special rule: stressed a- feminine nouns use el in singular
el agua (water), el hambre (hunger), el área (area), but still feminine
Plural reverts: las aguas, las áreas. Adjectives stay feminine: el agua fría.
Definite articles · el · la · los · las
Definite article table
| masculine | feminine |
|---|
| singular | el | la |
| plural | los | las |
Use definite when referring to something specific or known
El libro está en la mesa. (The book is on the table, specific)
Los perros son leales. (Dogs are loyal, as a category)
Me duele la cabeza. (My head hurts; body parts use the definite article)
Mandatory contractions
a and el contract to give al · Voy al mercado. (NOT "a el mercado")
de and el contract to give del · Vengo del trabajo. (NOT "de el trabajo")
No contraction with ella / ellos: Hablo de ella. Depende de ellos.
Indefinite articles · un · una · unos · unas
Indefinite article table
| masculine | feminine |
|---|
| singular | un | una |
| plural | unos | unas |
Use indefinite for something unspecific or first-mentioned
Busco un apartamento. (any apartment)
Hay una farmacia cerca. (a pharmacy nearby, first mention)
Vi unos pájaros en el jardín. (some birds)
Plural unos / unas means "some" or "a few"
Tengo unos libros para ti. (I have some books for you)
When not to use an article
Professions after ser: no article when unmodified
Soy ∅ médico. · Es ∅ profesora. (stating a role, no article)
But with an adjective: Es una buena profesora. (she is a good teacher)
Days of the week with ser
Hoy es ∅ lunes. (Today is Monday, no article)
El lunes voy al dentista. (On Monday I'm going to the dentist, definite)
Languages and nationalities after hablar / ser
Hablo ∅ español. · Estudio ∅ francés. (no article)
Grammatical gender · masculine · feminine
All Portuguese nouns are masculine or feminine
Masculine: o livro (book), o cão (dog), o sol (sun)
Feminine: a casa (house), a lua (moon), a cidade (city)
Endings that signal gender
Usually masculine: -o (livro, banco), -or (amor, calor), -ão (caminhão)
Usually feminine: -a (mesa, janela), -ção / -são (canção, tensão), -dade / -tade (cidade, liberdade), -tude (atitude)
Exceptions: o dia (day, masc), a mão (hand, fem), o problema (masc)
Proper names often take a definite article in Portuguese
O João chegou. · A Maria está aqui. (common in Brazilian Portuguese)
Definite articles · o · a · os · as
Definite article table
| masculine | feminine |
|---|
| singular | o | a |
| plural | os | as |
Contractions with prepositions (mandatory)
| prep | with o | with a | with os | with as |
|---|
| de | do | da | dos | das |
| em | no | na | nos | nas |
| a | ao | à | aos | às |
| por | pelo | pela | pelos | pelas |
Examples
Vim do trabalho. (I came from work: de and o give do)
Estou no escritório. (I'm in the office: em and o give no)
Vou ao mercado. (I'm going to the market: a and o give ao)
Indefinite articles · um · uma · uns · umas
Indefinite article table
| masculine | feminine |
|---|
| singular | um | uma |
| plural | uns | umas |
Use indefinite for something unspecific or first-mentioned
Preciso de um apartamento. (any apartment)
Há uma farmácia perto. (a pharmacy nearby)
Vi uns pássaros no jardim. (some birds; uns/umas means "some")
When not to use an article
Professions after ser: no article when unmodified
Sou ∅ médico. · Ela é ∅ professora. (stating a role)
But with an adjective: Ela é uma boa professora.
Languages and nationalities
Falo ∅ português. · Estudo ∅ francês.
Brazilian vs European Portuguese
European Portuguese tends to omit the article more before proper names and in some fixed expressions where Brazilian Portuguese uses one.
BP: A Maria chegou. · EP: ∅ Maria chegou.
Grammatical gender · masculine · feminine
All Italian nouns are masculine or feminine
Masculine: il libro (book), il cane (dog), il sole (sun)
Feminine: la casa (house), la luna (moon), la città (city)
Noun endings and plurals
Masculine -o to -i: libro / libri, amico / amici
Feminine -a to -e: casa / case, ragazza / ragazze
Either gender -e to -i: il fiore / fiori · la chiave / chiavi
Endings that reliably signal gender
Usually masculine: -ore (dottore, professore, colore), -iere (portiere, cavaliere), -ismo (capitalismo)
Usually feminine: -ione (canzone, nazione, tensione), -tà / -tù (città, virtù, invariable), -ice (attrice, pittrice)
Variable -ista: can be either gender: il / la pianista, il / la artista
Exceptions to learn
il problema, il tema, il sistema (Greek-origin words ending in -ma are masculine)
la mano (hand, feminine despite -o) · il cinema, il sofa (masculine despite -a)
Definite articles · il · lo · la · l' · i · gli · le
Which definite article to use: it depends on the first sound of the noun
| context | masc sg | masc pl | fem sg | fem pl |
|---|
| most consonants | il | i | la | le |
| s and consonant, z, gn, ps… | lo | gli | la | le |
| vowel | l' | gli | l' | le |
Examples
il libro, i libri · la casa, le case
lo studente, gli studenti · lo zaino, gli zaini
l'amico, gli amici · l'amica, le amiche
Indefinite articles · un · uno · una · un'
Indefinite articles follow the same sound-based rules as the definite
| context | masculine | feminine |
|---|
| most consonants | un | una |
| s and consonant, z, gn, ps… | uno | una |
| vowel | un | un' |
Examples
un libro (a book) · uno studente (a student) · uno zaino (a backpack)
una casa (a house) · un'amica (a friend, feminine form before vowel)
No plural indefinite article: use alcuni / alcune for "some"
alcuni libri (some books, masc) · alcune case (some houses, fem)
Preposizioni articolate · prepositions fuse with the article
The most common prepositions combine with the definite article
| il | lo | la | l' | i | gli | le |
|---|
| di | del | dello | della | dell' | dei | degli | delle |
| a | al | allo | alla | all' | ai | agli | alle |
| in | nel | nello | nella | nell' | nei | negli | nelle |
| su | sul | sullo | sulla | sull' | sui | sugli | sulle |
Examples
Il libro del professore. (the professor's book: di and il give del)
Vado al cinema. (I'm going to the cinema: a and il give al)
Abito nel centro. (I live in the centre: in and il give nel)
Il libro è sulla tavola. (The book is on the table: su and la give sulla)
Grammatical gender · masculine · feminine
All French nouns are masculine or feminine
Masculine: le livre (book), le chien (dog), le soleil (sun)
Feminine: la maison (house), la lune (moon), la liberté (freedom)
Endings that often signal gender
Usually masculine: -eau (gâteau, tableau), -isme (capitalisme), -age (voyage, fromage), -ment (gouvernement)
Usually feminine: -ion (nation, décision), -ure (voiture, culture), -ée (idée, journée), -ance / -ence (chance, patience), -té (liberté, beauté)
Note: These are tendencies, not rules. Gender must ultimately be memorized with the noun.
H aspiré vs H muet
H muet (silent h): elision and liaison apply normally: l'heure, l'homme, l'hôpital
H aspiré (aspirate h): no elision, no liaison: le héros, la honte, le hibou, le haricot
There is no reliable rule. Words with h aspiré must be memorized.
Notable exceptions
Masculine despite -e ending: le musée, le lycée, le problème, le silence
Feminine despite "masculine" patterns: la plage, la page, la nage
le · la · l' · les, with the contractions au / aux / du / des
Definite article forms
| Masculine | Feminine | Before vowel / h muet | Plural |
|---|
| Definite | le | la | l' | les |
Mandatory contractions
à and le give au · Il va au cinéma. (never "à le")
à and les give aux · Elle parle aux étudiants.
de and le give du · Il revient du travail. (never "de le")
de and les give des · Elle revient des États-Unis.
No contraction with la or l': à la gare, à l'école, de la ville, de l'eau.
When to use the definite article
Known / specific referent: Le livre que je lis est intéressant. (the book I'm reading)
Generic statements: La liberté est précieuse. (freedom in general)
Countries, languages, mountains: La France, le Japon, le français, les Alpes
Body parts: Elle a les yeux bleus. (she has blue eyes)
un · une · des, with negation pas de
Indefinite article forms
| Masculine | Feminine | Plural |
|---|
| Indefinite | un | une | des |
Usage
First mention / unspecified: J'ai un chien. (I have a dog, any dog)
Plural "some": Elle achète des fleurs. (she buys some flowers, an unspecified number)
Professions after être / devenir: no article: Il est ∅ médecin. Elle devient ∅ avocate.
Negation: un/une/des changes to de / d'
J'ai un chien. becomes Je n'ai pas de chien. (not "pas un chien")
Il a des amis. becomes Il n'a pas d'amis. (d' before a vowel)
Exception: With être, the article is kept in negation: Ce n'est pas un problème.
Partitive articles · du · de la · de l' · des
Partitive article forms
| Masculine | Feminine | Before vowel / h muet | Plural |
|---|
| Partitive | du | de la | de l' | des |
Note: du is formed by contracting de and le.
When to use the partitive
The partitive expresses an unspecified or uncountable quantity: "some" of something.
Je bois du café. (some coffee, not a specific amount)
Elle mange de la soupe. (some soup)
Il boit de l'eau. (some water, starts with a vowel)
Tu fais du sport ? (do you do any sport?)
Partitive: de after negation and quantity expressions
Negation: Je bois du café. becomes Je ne bois pas de café. ("pas de", never "pas du")
d' before vowel: Il n'a pas d'argent. (not "pas de l'argent")
Quantity expressions: beaucoup de lait, trop de travail, assez de temps. The article disappears entirely after quantity words.
ne…que (only): Je ne mange que des légumes. The article is kept after ne…que.
First mention · jobs · descriptions · consonant sounds
First mention: introducing something for the first time
I saw a dog yesterday. She bought a dress. I need a pen.
Jobs: stating what someone does
She is a teacher. He works as a nurse. She wants to be a doctor.
Descriptions: one of many, nothing specific
He is a good student. It was a beautiful day. That's a great idea.
Before consonant sounds
a dog, a car, a book, a student
Watch out: some vowel-spelled words have a consonant sound.
a university (/juː/), a European, a useful tip, a one-way street (/wʌn/)
Same uses as A, but before a vowel sound
Same contexts as A: first mention, jobs, descriptions
She is an engineer. I saw an elephant. That's an interesting idea.
Before vowel sounds (a, e, i, o, u)
an apple, an egg, an idea, an orange, an umbrella
Silent 'h': the h is not pronounced, so it sounds like a vowel
an hour, an honest person, an heir
It's about sound, not spelling
"umbrella": u sounds like /ʌ/ (vowel), so we use an umbrella
"university": u sounds like /juː/ (consonant), so we use a university
Second mention · specific · common places · superlatives · instruments
Second mention: once introduced, both people know which one
I saw a dog. The dog was huge.
She bought a dress. The dress was red.
Specific things: shared context makes it clear which one
Close the door. Pass the salt. Did you return the book I lent you?
Common places: familiar locations in daily life
go to the cinema, the bank, the supermarket, the gym, the park
Superlatives
He is the best player. It's the most popular song.
Musical instruments (when playing)
She plays the piano. He plays the guitar. She took up the violin.
Unique things · ordinal numbers · geographic features
the sun, the moon · on the second floor · the Amazon, the Alps
Noun made specific by a following phrase or clause
the life he chose · the silence in the room · the beauty of the view
General meaning · meals · time · TV · languages · next and last
General meaning: a whole category or concept
∅ Dolphins are intelligent. ∅ Music moves people. ∅ Time heals all wounds.
Meals
have ∅ breakfast, at ∅ lunch, after ∅ dinner, skip ∅ supper
But: The dinner she cooked was amazing. (specific: the)
Years, months and days
in ∅ 2024, in ∅ March, on ∅ Monday, on ∅ Friday morning
TV: the medium, not the device
watch ∅ TV, on ∅ TV, see it on ∅ television
But: Turn off the TV. (the physical device: the)
Languages and school subjects
speaks ∅ French, studies ∅ economics, teaches ∅ history, loves ∅ jazz
Next and last: no article with these time expressions
∅ next Monday, ∅ last week, ∅ next year, ∅ last month
Institutions for purpose · fixed expressions
go to ∅ school, ∅ church, ∅ prison · at ∅ home, at ∅ work, by ∅ car
Same noun, different article, different meaning
Purpose (∅) vs Physical building (the)
go to ∅ school (to study) · go to the school (the building)
go to ∅ prison (punished) · go to the prison (visit)
in ∅ hospital (patient) · in the hospital (visitor)
Abstract concept (∅) vs Defined instance (the)
∅ Life is short. · The life he chose was full of adventure.
∅ Beauty is skin deep. · The beauty of the view left everyone speechless.
∅ Music moves people. · The music at the party was loud.
Activity (∅) vs Location (the)
at ∅ sea (sailing) · at the sea (by the coast)